http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1089
avoid aspartame: Malinee Thambyayah, child neurologist, Malaysia: Murray
4004.06.08 rmforall

"She stresses that parents ought to teach their children to drink plain
water instead of carbonated soft drinks, as the latter contain a high amount
of sugar (bad for teeth) and aspartame (a common substance that, over the
long-term, can cause health problems such as headaches and palpitations)."

http://www.emedia.com.my/Current_News/NST/Tuesday/Features/20040608080107/Articl\
e/indexb_html

New Straits Times: Malaysia's Premier Newspaper Online mailed@...

HEALTH: Teach your child to eat healthily
by Nurjehan Mohamed 2004 June 08

With obesity on the rise among children, parents should ensure that they
pass on proper dietary habits to their children at an early age.
NURJEHAN MOHAMED writes.

With the number of overweight and obese children on the rise, current and
would-be parents have to start assessing their eating habits, especially if
they're used to junk food and eating out. A lifestyle makeover is then in
order to ensure they pass on the proper dietary habits to their children.

A study carried out recently by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Nestle on
12,000 primary schoolchildren in Peninsular Malaysia found that 13 per cent
(or about 1,560) are overweight while six per cent (or 720) are obese.

Consultant child neurologist and developmental paediatrician Dr Malinee
Thambyayah says that an expectant mother's diet and health can affect her
unborn child. If a woman develops diabetes during her pregnancy, for
example, there is a chance that her child will be born underweight and
malnourished.

Researchers also recently reported that the flavours from the food eaten by
a woman while breast-feeding percolate into her breast milk, giving her
child a potentially lifelong taste for similar foods.

According to Dr Thambyayah, there are a number of ways that parents can help
ensure that their children learn healthy eating habits from an early age:

* Don't rely on canned or bottled food. "Parents should fall back on the
tried and tested ways of their forefathers - by cooking food daily from
fresh ingredients."

Try to incorporate plenty of fruit and vegetables. Soy-based foods as well
as lentils, legumes and brown rice are also healthy alternatives, she adds.

* Dr Thambyayah says that cooking time can also be used as family time if
parents get their children to help with the food preparation.

"This will also be a good opportunity for parents to teach their children to
appreciate good food."

She also advises against eating out often as one can never be sure of what
is put into the foods that are served.

* Dr Thambyayah adds that one way of getting children to eat healthily is to
make them curious about what they are eating. "Try adding different kinds of
vegetables into fried rice or serving omelettes and vegetables in the shape
of funny faces."

* She stresses that parents ought to teach their children to drink plain
water instead of carbonated soft drinks, as the latter contain a high amount
of sugar (bad for teeth) and aspartame (a common substance that, over the
long-term, can cause health problems such as headaches and palpitations).

* It is also important to educate children to read food labels. "That's what
I've taught my children from young," she adds. "I told them that if it
contains unnecessary preservatives and additives, just choose something
else."
***************************************************************

MALINEE THAMBYAYAH BATU CAVES Wilayah Persekutuan
MALINEE THAMBYAYAH
Doctor Clinic Address
Address DEPARTMENT OF PAEDIATRIC
HOSPITAL SELAYANG
City BATU CAVES
PostCode 68100
State Wilayah Persekutuan
Country Malaysia
Doctor Contact Information
Tel Number 03-61203233
Fax Number 03-61377097
Pager
Email address malinee@...
Doctor Speciality Paediatrics
Doctor Degree MBBS, MRCP(IRE & U.K.)

Malaysian Society of Neurosciences info@...
Secretariat: c/o Novartis Corporation (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd
Lot 9 Jalan 26/1, Section 26
Kawasan Perindustrian Hicom
40400 Shah Alam
Selangor Darul Ehsan
MALAYSIA
Tel: 603-512 6666 Ext 307 Fax: 603-511 6514
http://www.neuro.org.my/index.php

30 Jan 2004 Child Neurology

The Chapter of Child Neurology and Developmental Paediatrics was formed in
November 2002 to promote paediatric neurology in Malaysia. The committee
consists of a chairman, secretary, treasurer and two other committee
members. The AOCNA delegate will automatically be one of the committee
members of the chapter. The committee is elected every 2 years in tandem
with the MSN election. One member within the committee will be appointed to
represent the chapter in the MSN council.

The members of the first committee are:
Associate Professor Wong Chee Piau (chairman)
Professor Ong Lai Choo (treasurer)
Dr. Ng Sui Yin (secretary)
Dr. Khoo Teik Beng (committee member)
Dr. Malinee Thambyayah (committee member)

Brain Dev. 2001 Nov; 23(7): 603-4.
Early epileptic encephalopathies including West syndrome: a 3-year
retrospective study from Klang Hospital, Malaysia.
Thambyayah M.
Department of Pediatrics, Hospital Tengku Ampuan Rahimah, 41200 Klang,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. malinee@...

It is difficult to give a country report from Malaysia.
A study done in 1999 reported the incidence of West Syndrome to be 3% among
newly diagnosed cases of epilepsy.
In this 3 year retrospective hospital-based study (1997-1999),
the prevalence of early epileptic encephalopathy (EEE) and West Syndrome
were 4.1 and 2.5% respectively.
There is difficulty classifying EEE cases into distinct sub-groups of EIEE
(early infantile epileptic encephalopathy), WS (West Syndrome) and SMEI
(severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy), using a combination of clinical
features, EEG and CT/MRI findings. PMID: 11701263

Brain Dev. 1996 Nov-Dec; 18(6): 485-6.
Report on the activity of child neurology in Malaysia.
Thambyayah M.
Department of Paediatrics, Hospital Tengu Ampuan Rahimah, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia. tpt@...
Publication Types: Congresses PMID: 8980848

Pediatr Radiol. 1992; 22(4): 246-50.
Cerebrovascular resistive index assessed by duplex Doppler sonography and
its relationship to intracranial pressure in infantile hydrocephalus.
Goh D, Minns RA, Hendry GM, Thambyayah M, Steers AJ.
Department of Paediatric Neurology, Royal Hospital for Sick Children,
Edinburgh, UK.

Duplex Doppler sonography and direct intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement
were performed on 18 patients with infantile hydrocephalus.
ICP was measured through a frontal reservoir or ventricular tap using a
nondisplacement pressure transducer.
The Pourcelot Resistive Index, RI = (peak systolic-end diastolic)/peak
systolic velocity was obtained from pulsed-wave Doppler measurements of
blood flow velocity in the anterior (ACA) and/or the middle cerebral (MCA)
arteries.
There was a statistically significant positive correlation between ICP and
RIs in the MCA and ACA.
Paired RI measurements in 7 patients with raised ICP decreased significantly
from a mean of 0.90 pre-tap to 0.75 post-tap.
Our results suggest that the RI provides a reliable measure of
cerebrovascular resistance in hydrocephalus.
Duplex Doppler ultrasonography thus is a useful noninvasive means of
monitoring
cerebrohaemodynamic change with simultaneous imaging of ventricular size in
infantile hydrocephalus. PMID: 1523043

Lancet. 1991 Apr 27; 337(8748): 1022-4.
Prevalence and incidence of Becker muscular dystrophy.
Bushby KM, Thambyayah M, Gardner-Medwin D.
Department of Neurobiology and Genetics, University of Newcastle upon Tyne,
UK.

We measured the prevalence and incidence of Becker muscular dystrophy in the
Northern Health Region of England, UK.
Patients were identified from the records of the Regional Neurological
Centre and Muscular Dystrophy Group laboratories, Newcastle upon Tyne, and
by writing to local doctors.
We used cDNA probes and/or dystrophin immunolabelling of muscle-biopsy
samples to prove the diagnosis of all cases.
Results were compared with the known prevalence and incidence of Duchenne
muscular dystrophy.
73 patients alive and resident in the Northern Health Region were
identified, giving a prevalence rate of 2.38/100,000.
This compares with a prevalence of Duchenne muscular dystrophy of
2.48/100,000.
The cumulative birth incidence of Becker muscular dystrophy (at least 1 in
18 450 male live births) was about one third that of Duchenne muscular
dystrophy (1 in 5618 male live births),
suggesting that the disorder is more common than previously thought.
PMID: 1673177

http://www.ummc.edu.my/fom/administration/intro.htm
The University of Malaya Medical Centre
The Faculty of Medicine and the University of Malaya Medical Centre
(previously known as University Hospital Kuala Lumpur)

The Faculty of Medicine,
University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia
Telephone: +603-79502104 Fax: +603-79568842

http://www.hkl.gov.my/
Hospital Kuala Lumpur

http://www.hukm.ukm.my/
Hospital Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia HUKM

Faculty of Medicine,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Jalan Yaacob Latif,
Bandar Tun Razak,
Cheras 56000,
Kuala Lumpur.
Phone : 03-9173 8907 / 03-9170 2108 / 03-9173 3333
Fax : 03-9173 7307
****************************************************************

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1071
research on aspartame (methanol, formaldehyde, formic acid) toxicity:
Murray 2004.06.08 rmforall

Rich Murray, MA Room For All rmforall@...
1943 Otowi Road, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87505 USA 505-501-2298

[ NutraSweet, Equal, Canderel, Benevia, E951 ]

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/927
Donald Rumsfeld, 1977 head of Searle Corp., got aspartame FDA approval:
Turner: Murray 2002.12.23 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1039
three-page review: aspartame (methanol, formaldehyde) toxicity:
Murray 2003.11.22 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1026
brief aspartame review: formaldehyde toxicity: Murray 2003.09.11 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1025
aspartame & formaldehyde toxicity: Murray 2003.09.09 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1088
Murray, full plain text & critique:
chronic aspartame in rats affects memory, brain cholinergic receptors, and
brain chemistry, Christian B, McConnaughey M et al, 2004 May:
2004.06.05 rmforall

Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2004 May; 78(1): 121-7.
Chronic aspartame affects T-maze performance, brain cholinergic receptors
and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase in rats.
Christian B, McConnaughey K, Bethea E, Brantley S, Coffey A, Hammond L,
Harrell S, Metcalf K, Muehlenbein D, Spruill W, Brinson L, McConnaughey M.
Department of Pharmacology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina
University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA;
North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics, Durham, NC 27811.
http://www.ecu.edu/pharmacology/faculty/mcconnaughey.html
Mona M. McConnaughey, Ph.D. Research Assistant Professor
Department: PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
Office: Brody Medical Science 6E-120A 252-744-2756
MCCONNAUGHEYM@...

This study demonstrated that chronic aspartame consumption in rats can lead
to altered T-maze performance and increased muscarinic cholinergic receptor
densities in certain brain regions.
Control and treated rats were trained in a T-maze to a particular side and
then periodically tested to see how well they retained the learned response.
Rats that had received aspartame (250 mg/kg/day) in the drinking water for 3
or 4 months showed a significant increase in time to reach the reward in the
T-maze, suggesting a possible effect on memory due to the artificial
sweetener.
Using [(3)H]quinuclidinyl benzilate (QNB) (1 nM) to label muscarinic
cholinergic receptors and atropine (10(-6) M) to determine nonspecific
binding in whole-brain preparations,
aspartame-treated rats showed a 31% increase in receptor numbers when
compared to controls.
In aspartame-treated rats, there was a significant increase in muscarinic
receptor densities in the
frontal cortex, midcortex, posterior cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus and
cerebellum of 80%, 60%, 61%, 65%, 66% and 60%, respectively.
The midbrain was the only area where preparations from aspartame-treated
rats showed a significant increase in Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity.
It can be concluded from these data that long-term consumption of aspartame
can affect T-maze performance in rats and alter receptor densities or
enzymes in brain. PMID: 15159141

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1067
eyelid contact dermatitis by formaldehyde from aspartame, AM Hill & DV
Belsito, Nov 2003: Murray 2004.03.30 rmforall [ 150 KB ]

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/messages
118 members, 1089 posts in a public searchable archive

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartame/messages
806 members, 16,949 posts in a public, searchable archive

It is certain that high levels of aspartame use, above 2 liters daily for
months and years, must lead to chronic formaldehyde-formic acid toxicity.

Fully 11% of aspartame is methanol-- 1,120 mg aspartame in 2 L diet soda,
almost six 12-oz cans, gives 123 mg methanol (wood alcohol).
The methanol is immediately released into the body after drinking--
unlike the large levels of methanol locked up in complex molecules inside
many fruits and vegetables.
Within hours, the liver turns much of the methanol into formaldehyde, and
then much of that into formic acid, both of which in time are partially
eliminated as carbon dioxide and water.

However, about 30% of the methanol remains in the body as cumulative
durable toxic metabolites of formaldehyde and formic acid-- 37 mg daily,
a gram every month, accumulating in and affecting every tissue.

If only 10% of the methanol is retained daily as formaldehyde, that would
give 12 mg daily formaldehyde accumulation-- about 60 times more than the
0.2 mg from 10% retention of the 2 mg EPA daily limit for formaldehyde in
drinking water.

Bear in mind that the EPA limit for formaldehyde in drinking water is
1 ppm, or 2 mg daily for a typical daily consumption of 2 L of water.

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/835
ATSDR: EPA limit 1 ppm formaldehyde in drinking water July 1999:
Murray 2002.05.30 rmforall

This long-term low-level chronic toxic exposure leads to typical patterns of
increasingly severe complex symptoms, starting with headache, fatigue, joint
pain, irritability, memory loss, rashes, and leading to vision and eye
problems, and even seizures. In many cases there is addiction. Probably
there are immune system disorders, with a hypersensitivity to these toxins
and other chemicals.

J. Nutrition 1973 Oct; 103(10): 1454-1459.
Metabolism of aspartame in monkeys.
Oppermann JA, Muldoon E, Ranney RE.
Dept. of Biochemistry, Searle Laboratories,
Division of G.D. Searle and Co. Box 5110, Chicago, IL 60680
They found that about 70% of the radioactive methanol in aspartame put into
the stomachs of 3 to 7 kg monkeys was eliminated within 8 hours, with little
additional elimination, as carbon dioxide in exhaled air and as water in
the urine.
They did not mention that this meant that about 30% of the methanol must
transform into formaldehyde and then into formic acid, both of which must
remain as toxic products in all parts of the body.
They did not report any studies on the distribution of radioactivity in body
tissues, except that blood plasma proteins after 4 days held 4% of the
initial methanol.
This study did not monitor long-term use of aspartame.

The low oral dose of aspartame and for methanol was 0.068 mmol/kg, about 1
part per million [ppm] of the acute toxicity level of 2,000 mg/kg, 67,000
mmol/kg, used by McMartin (1979).
Two L daily use of diet soda provides 123 mg methanol, 2 mg/kg for a 60 kg
person, a dose of 67 mmole/kg, a thousand times more than the dose in this
study.
By eight hours excretion of the dose in air and urine had leveled off at
67.1 +-2.1% as CO2 in the exhaled air and 1.57+-0.32% in the urine, so 68.7
% was excreted, and 31.3% was retained.
This data is the average of 4 monkeys.
"...the 14C in the feces was negligible."

"That fraction not so excreted (about 31%) was converted to body
constituents through the one-carbon metabolic pool."
"All radioactivity measurements were counted to +-1% accuracy..."
This indicates that the results could not be claimed to have a precision of
a tenth of a percent. OK, so this is a nit-pick-- but I believe espousing
spurious accuracy is a sign of scientific insecurity.

The abstract ends, "It was concluded that aspartame was digested to its
three constituents that were then absorbed as natural constituents of the
diet."
Thus, the concept is very subtly insinuated that methanol, as a
constituent of aspartame, is absorbed as a natural constituent of the diet.
"Dietary methanol is derived in large part from fresh fruits and
vegetables."
This is a serious error, since the large amounts of methanol in fresh fruits
and vegetables are not readily released by human digestion. (W. C. Monte,
1984)
Nowhere in this report are mentioned the dread words, "formaldehyde" and
"formic acid".

Of course, methanol and formaldehyde toxicity studies are highly relevant to
the issue of aspartame toxicity. [ Aspartame has to be turned into its
toxic products, formaldehyde and formic acid, in the body, before it is
toxic, so some pro-aspartame reseach studies test aspartame outside the
body, and then proclaim that they have proved that it is not toxic. ]

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/915
formaldehyde toxicity: Thrasher & Kilburn: Shaham: EPA: Gold:
Wilson: CIIN: Murray 2002.12.12 rmforall

Thrasher (2001): "The major difference is that the Japanese demonstrated
the incorporation of FA and its metabolites into the placenta and fetus.
The quantity of radioactivity remaining in maternal and fetal tissues
at 48 hours was 26.9% of the administered dose." [ Ref. 14-16 ]

Arch Environ Health 2001 Jul-Aug; 56(4): 300-11.
Embryo toxicity and teratogenicity of formaldehyde. [100 references]
Thrasher JD, Kilburn KH. toxicology@...
Sam-1 Trust, Alto, New Mexico, USA.
http://www.drthrasher.org/formaldehyde_embryo_toxicity.html full text

http://www.drthrasher.org/formaldehyde_1990.html full text Jack Dwayne
Thrasher, Alan Broughton, Roberta Madison. Immune activation and
autoantibodies in humans with long-term inhalation exposure to formaldehyde.
Archives of Environmental Health. 1990; 45: 217-223. "Immune activation,
autoantibodies, and anti-HCHO-HSA antibodies are associated with long-term
formaldehyde inhalation." PMID: 2400243

Confirming evidence and a general theory are given by Pall (2002):
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/909
testable theory of MCS type diseases, vicious cycle of nitric oxide &
peroxynitrite: MSG: formaldehyde-methanol-aspartame:
Martin L. Pall: Murray: 2002.12.09 rmforall

Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Sep; 111(12): 1461-4.
Elevated nitric oxide/peroxynitrite theory of multiple chemical sensitivity:
central role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the sensitivity mechanism.
Pall ML.
School of Molecular Biosciences, 301 Abelson Hall, Washington State
University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA. martin_pall@...

The elevated nitric oxide/peroxynitrite and the neural sensitization
theories of multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) are extended here to propose
a central mechanism for the exquisite sensitivity to organic solvents
apparently induced by previous chemical exposure in MCS.
This mechanism is centered on the activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
receptors by organic solvents producing elevated nitric oxide and
peroxynitrite, leading in turn to increased stimulating of and
hypersensitivity of NMDA receptors.
In this way, organic solvent exposure may produce progressive sensitivity to
organic solvents.
Pesticides such as organophosphates and carbamates may act via muscarinic
stimulation to produce a similar biochemical and sensitivity response.
Accessory mechanisms of sensitivity may involve both increased blood-brain
barrier permeability, induced by peroxynitrite, and cytochrome P450
inhibition by nitric oxide.
The NMDA hyperactivity/hypersensitivity and excessive nitric
oxide/peroxynitrite view of MCS provides answers to many of the most
puzzling aspects of MCS while building on previous studies and views of this
condition. PMID: 12948884

Prof. Pall describes processes by which an initial trigger exposure, such as
carbon monoxide or formaldehyde, can generate hypersensitivity to many
substances. He himself had recovered from a sudden, debilitating attack of
multiple chemical sensitity in June/July 1997.

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1055
hormesis: possible benefits of low-level aspartame (methanol, formaldehyde)
use: Calabrese: Soffritti: Murray 2004.03.11 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1056
disorders of NMDA glutamate receptors in brain range from high activity
(MCS, CF, PTSD, FM, from carbon monoxide or formaldehyde (methanol,
aspartame)-- Pall)
to low activity (schizophrenia-- Coyle, Goff, Javitts):
Murray 2004.03.13 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/946
Functional Therapeutics in Neurodegenerative Disease Part 1/2:
Perlmutter 1999.07.15: Murray 2003.01.10 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/97
Lancet website aspartame letter 1999.07.29:
Excitotoxins 1999 Part 1/3 Blaylock: Murray 2000.01.14 rmforall
The Medical Sentinel Journal 1999 Fall; (95 references)
http://www.dorway.com/blayenn.html

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1034
Brain cell damage from amino acid isolates (aspartame releases
phenylalanine, aspartate, methanol [formaldehyde, formic acid] Bowen &
Evangelista May 6 2002: Murray 2003.11.10 rmforall

http://www.aspartame.ca/Brain%20Cell%20Damage.pdf
Brain cell damage from amino acid isolates 5.6.2 41 references
detailed 22 page review by James D. Bowen, MD and Arthur M. Evangelista,
former FDA Investigator orwilly@...

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/628
Professional House Doctors: Singer: EPA: CPSC:
formaldehyde toxicity: Murray 2001.06.10 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1047
Avoiding Hangover Hell 2003.12.31 Mark Sherman, AP writer:
Robert Swift, MD [ formaldehyde from methanol in aspartame ]:
Murray 2004.01.16 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1048
hangovers from formaldehyde from methanol (aspartame?):
Schwarcz: Linsley: Murray 2004.01.18

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1052
DMDC: Dimethyl dicarbonate 200mg/L in drinks adds methanol 98 mg/L
( becomes formaldehyde in body ): EU Scientific Committee on Foods
2001.07.12: Murray 2004.01.22 rmforall

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/782
RTM: Smith, Terpening, Schmidt, Gums:
full text: aspartame, MSG, fibromyalgia 2002.01.17 rmforall
Jerry D Smith, Chris M Terpening, Siegfried OF Schmidt, and John G Gums
Relief of Fibromyalgia Symptoms Following
Discontinuation of Dietary Excitotoxins.
The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2001; 35(6): 702-706.
Malcolm Randall Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA.
BACKGROUND: Fibromyalgia is a common rheumatologic disorder that is
often difficult to treat effectively.
CASE SUMMARY: Four patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia syndrome
for two to 17 years are described.
All had undergone multiple treatment
modalities with limited success. All had complete, or nearly complete,
resolution of their symptoms within months after eliminating monosodium
glutamate (MSG) or MSG plus aspartame from their diet.
All patients were women with multiple comorbidities
prior to elimination of MSG.
All have had recurrence of symptoms whenever MSG is ingested.

Siegfried O. Schmidt, MD Asst. Clinical Prof. siggy@...
Community Health and Family Medicine, U. Florida, Gainesville, FL
Shands Hospital West Oak Clinic Gainesville, FL 32608-3629
352-376-5071

Debbie J. Hypes painfreeliving@... 304-872-4141 (Case # 1 of 4)
P.O Box 25 Lookout, WV 25868-0025 She has about 1,000 on her local
mailing list, and has been a volunteer activist since 1997. Her guide
first came out in 1997: http://www.Pain-Free-Living.net
"The Food Plan: How To Do It" $ 5 by mail, free by email.
Her sister Darlene, now 47, cured her own severe fibromyalgia in 1995
by using an elimination diet, and then Debbie also cured herself by
1997. Their doctor, Siegfried Schmidt, paying attention, tried it on
two more patients, who got well, and are his third and fourth cases.
****************************************************************